| Ocular side effects of antirheumatic medications | |||
| Drug | Non-infectious side effects | Infectious side effects | References |
| Azathioprine | Retardation in corneal wound healing in albino rabbits | CMV retinitis, ocular toxoplasmosis reactivation | 6–8 |
| Methotrexate | Pruritus, burning, irritation, blurred vision, conjunctivitis, dry eyes, blepharitis, internuclear ophthalmoplegia, optic disc swelling, visual field defects, intraocular lymphoma, retinal cotton wool spots, corneal epitheliopathy | None reported | 9–21 |
| Mycophenolate mofetil | None in vivo; toxicity to retinal pigment epithelium in vitro | None reported | 23 |
| Leflunomide | Cystoid macular oedema | None reported | 25 |
| Ciclosporin | Potentiate steroid-induced cataracts | CMV anterior uveitis | 27–31 |
| Cyclophosphamide | Blurred vision, conjunctivitis, tearing, pruritus, burning of the eyes, soreness, grittiness, dryness, increased lacrimation, bilateral punctal stenosis | None reported | 33–35 |
| Sulfasalazine | Transient myopia | None reported | 38 |
| Apremilast | None reported | None reported | – |
| Baricitinib | None reported | None reported | – |
| Tofacitinib | None reported | None reported | – |
| TNF inhibitors | Paradoxical reactions (uveitis, sarcoid uveitis, sarcoid-like granulomatosis and scleritis) Demyelinating conditions (GBS, MFS, MS-like syndromes, optic neuritis, internuclear ophthalmoplegia, homonymous hemianopia, nystagmus, diplopia, visual field defects and scotomas) | 39–58 | |
| Adalimumab | Diffuse retinopathy, central retinal vein occlusion, peripheral corneal infiltrates, acute retinal necrosis | Necrotising group A streptococcal periorbital infection, orbital abscess | 59–64 |
| Certolizumab | Shares side effects from TNF inhibitors class. No other reports found. | None reported | – |
| Etanercept | Acute ocular myositis, angioedema of the periorbital region, primary Intraocular lymphoma | Postoperative eyelid infection, TB uveitis, HHV6 uveitis, bilateral candida chorioretinitis, toxoplasmic chorioretinitis | 65–73 |
| Golimumab | Merkel cell carcinoma of the eyelid | None reported | 74 |
| Infliximab | Retinal vein thrombosis, rosacea keratitis | Endogenous endophthalmitis, endophthalmitis associated with Purpureocillium lilacinum, orbital cellulitis, CMV retinitis, toxoplasmic chorioretinitis | 75–84 |
| Anakinra | Nystagmus | None reported | 85 |
| Canakinumab | None reported | None reported | – |
| Sarilumab | Worsening uveitis and retinal infiltrates | None reported | 86 |
| Tocilizumab | Fulminant bilateral papilloedema | HTLV-1 uveitis, viral conjunctivitis, ophthalmic herpes zoster infection | 87–90 |
| Ustekinumab | None reported | Ophthalmic herpes | 91 |
| Secukinumab | None reported | Endogenous endophthalmitis | 93 |
| Ixekizumab | None reported | None reported | – |
| Rituximab | Retinal necrosis, conjunctivitis, macular oedema, transient IOP elevations and iridocyclitis with mutton-fat keratic precipitates | CMV retinitis | 95–100 |
| Abatacept | None reported | Infectious cornea ulcer | 102 |
| Interferon alpha | Ocular retinopathy, non-arteritic anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy, neuromyelitis optica, optic neuritis, cystoid macular oedema, Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease, abducens palsy, oculomotor nerve palsy, glaucoma, retinal vein thrombosis | None reported | 105–129 |
CMV, cytomegalovirus; GBS, Guillian-barre Syndrome ; HHV6, human herpesvirus 6; HTLV-1, human T-cell leukaemia-lymphoma virus 1; IOP, intraocular pressure; MFS, Miller Fisher Syndrome; MS, Multiple Sclerosis; TB, tuberculosis; TNF, tumour necrosis factor.